Institutional Structures Of Brazil And China Economics Essay

Institutional Structures Of Brazil And China Economics Essay There are a number of factors that multi-national corporations ought to consider before investing in another country. The challenges that are faced vary from country to country. In some cases there are similarities within the institutional structures of these countries that may attract corporations to take advantage of the favorable factors. On the other hand some instructional structures are capable of limiting the policy alternatives available to investors and other policy makers. The control in power among government organizations such as the legislative, judicial and executive makes it difficult for the policy making process to be reviewed. This paper seeks to analyze and discuss five areas of the institutional structures of Brazil and china that are likely to influence global corporations like OPEC to invest in the petroleum industry of another country. A discussion of the comparative attractiveness of these markets is also presented after the assessment of the two countries. A brief back ground of the two countries is also presented. A logical conclusion is drawn from such assessment at the end of this paper. overview of Brazil With the exploitation of large natural resources and a large labor intensive economy, Brazil has risen to the position of being the leading economic power in South America as a major emerging economy. Revenues from the production and supply of oil have made a significant contribution to the development of the economy. Petrobras (a major oil producing company in Brazil founded in the year 1953) has established itself as the biggest oil company in the Latin America in terms of revenue and market capitalization; according to the rankings from Latin Business Chronicle, Petrobras 2008 revenue was 118.3 billion. While the company (Petrobras) has withdrawn itself from being Brazils legal monopolist in the petroleum industry in 1997, it continues to play a significant role as a major oil producer, with production exceeding 2 million barrels of oil per day. Information presented on CIA- world fact a book show that in 2008 Brazils estimated oil production in barrels of oil equivalent per day w as 2.422 million. The country is governed under the 1988 constitution of amendment, of which it is presently being run by the federal republic (government type). The countrys president (leader of government) who is elected into office by the highest votes can serve a four year term (and may do so on two terms), has both the positions of the head of state and head of government. Brazil has an increasing economy based primarily on financial, service, manufacturing and trade (Britannica concise encyclopedia, 2010). With an increasing and developing agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors, Brazil is placed at the top of all the countries within South America. This has allowed the country to accomplish a well established position in the global market and economy. According to a report produced by the World Economic Forum, the Brazilian economy was ranked as the top country in rising evolution of competitiveness in 2009. Brazil posses a large mineral wealth comprising of iron ore, tin, quartz, industrial diamonds, gem stones, gold, uranium, bauxite and platinum. The newly found offshore oil and natural gas deposits can place the country in the position of being a major gas and petroleum producer. The country also has a very large food processing and the principal manufacturing industries produce of products such as shoes, chemicals, steel, aircraft textile and machinery. The main source of Brazils electricity comes from water power, and it has a great untouched potential for hydroelectricity, more so in the Amazon basin. Brief overview of Russia Russia has gone through a period of industrialization since the disintegration of the Soviet Union (in 1991) shifting from an internationally-isolated, predominantly planned economy to a market-oriented and internationally-integrated economy. The economic restructuring and development process which began in the 1990s has witnessed the nationalization of most industry, with the distinct exclusion in the energy and security-related sectors. Today, Russia has been experiencing significant economic development as one of the major emerging market. In addition, Russia has a favorable balance of trade where exports exceed imports in a significant way. According to CIA-the world fact book, Russias estimated exports for 2008 and 2009 are 471.6 billion and 295.6 billion respectively, whereas their imports for the same period are 291.9 billion and 196.8 billion respectively. Russias Petroleum industry is another major contributor to the economy and is one of the biggest oil producers in the glo bal market. According to a June 2009 report present by the Energy Information Administration, Russia is ranked the 2nd largest oil producer with the production of 9,677 thousand barrels of oil per day. The report also ranked Russia as the fourth biggest consumer of petroleum in the world with consumption of approximately 2,811 thousand barrels per day. As it relates to oil export, Russia is ranked as the 2nd biggest net exporter) with 6,866 thousand barrels per day. The government type of Russia is a Federal Republic which basically means that the country has a federation of states run by a Republican type of government. This type of government is comprised of both a President and a Prime Minister that jointly runs the countrys affairs. The President holds the position of head of state while the Prime Minister holds the position of head of state; the Executive authority is carried out by the government and the Legislative Authority is carried out by both the government and the two chambers of the Federal Assembly of Russia. The safe guarding of property rights issue has continued to be an area of serious concern while the strong state interference in private sector continues to be a norm. Russias industry is mainly divided between internationally competitive product producers. In 2009, Russia was the worlds biggest exporter of both petroleum and natural gas and was ranked in third spot as the biggest exporter of steel and main aluminum. In order for businesses to conduct foreign investments there are a few risk factors that can serve as barriers for investments. These risk factors could undermine growth and economic stability and they should be taken into consideration so that businesses would remain profitable and have sustainable market share in this competitive global era. Every business transactions have some level of risk. However, when business transaction takes place across global borders, additional risk is prevalent as oppose to domestic transactions. This section, examines the stability of both Brazil and Russia as it relates to the potential investment of Oil Industry. In order to compare and contrast both countries on its stability, considerations have to be given to the Political, Economic, Regulatory and Technological environment. Compare and contrast Brazil and Russia as it relates to political stability Brazil has a Federal Government type meaning their political environment is made up of a number of self-governing states united by a federal government (Babylon translation, 2004), whereas, Russia on the other hand is made up of a Constitutional Federation (Federal Republic). The issue here is whether governments action could affect the profitability of investing in Brazil or Russia. Brazil is a stable government who is open to the idea of foreign investors. It is the largest foreign direct investment recipient in Latin America, attracting an estimated USD 42 billion in 2008 (United Nations report). Although Brazil is considered as friendly or appropriate environment for investment, the governments implementation of high level taxation and regulatory requirements exist. Brazil has a cooperate tax of 34% as compared to Russia 20% (Brazil income taxes 2010). As a result, conducting business in Brazil as compared to Russia with taxation as the variable makes Russia more of an attractive market since businesses in Russia will have more disposable earning for expansionary purposes of the oil industry. The level of corruption in a country has far reaching ramification on investments and on the doing business climate. According to Transparency International (2010) which gives corruption perception indices on a scale of 1-10 (1 being highly corrupt and 10 being free from corruption), Brazil has a corruption perception index of 3.5 whereas; Russia has a corruption perception index of 2.3. Hence, Russia highly probability of investors in the oil industry being subjected to unfair business practices than that of Brazil. Compare and contrast Brazil and Russia as it relates to their Regulatory stability According to Bloombergs report (2008), the Brazilian economy grow at the fastest paste since 2004 and in sync with standards and poors report the country is expected to maintain annual growth up to 4.5%. This type of economic growth gives credit to the country for potential investment. Thus, the previous year Brazil recorded a record high of $34.6 billion foreign investment. This amount of foreign direct investment together with a tripled export rate will cover Brazils current account deficit (Standard and Poors, 2008). Brazil stable economy have drawn investors and trade agreements between Brazil and other countries. Russia on the other hand, economy has been contracting due to falling oil prices and trade disputes with neighbors. This has resulted in Russia being the first G-8 nation to be downgraded since the start of the global economic crisis. Russia has been struggling with rising inflation, high unemployment, negative economic growth and social unrest which have become a disin centive for foreign direct investment including that of the oil industry (Walker and Robbins, 2009). Compare and contrast Brazil and Russia as it relates to their Economic stability As every other country Russia has regulatory system in place, however as a result of corruption, regulations are not enforced as to aid in the fear treatment of investors. The influence of governments on prices, bureaucratic inconsistency and other forms of government controls detours investments in various sectors. The regulatory environment in Russia makes it difficult to start, operate and close a business. Bureaucratic procedures are drawn out and complicated. For example, obtaining a business license takes more than 18 procedures and 218 days (The heritage foundation 2010). Investment law is very subjective to federal law which allows Government a lot of discretionary control over foreign investment. That is to say, while investment laws speculate the national treatment or foreign investors, federal law is given the prerogative in the protection of the constitution and defense of state. In retrospect, the Russian government in 2006 introduced what is known as the strategic secto rs law under which interests by foreign investors must be pre-approved by the Russian government which has been marred by corruption (Russia been ranked 147 out of 149 countries on transparency international index or 2008 and bribery being rampant), inadequate infrastructure and unreliable contract enforcement. All of these factors affecting the oil industry in various ways. The court system however, in Brazil has proven to be highly ineffective. This is due to lack of human resource and efficient functionary equipment, especially when dealing with issues pertaining to shareholder rights and claims. This comparison shows that both markets have varying weaknesses as it relates to regulatory systems. However, specific to oil industry, Brazil has a comparative advantage in that, the country has had regulatory stability for over 10 years of petroleum Law (Hale, 2009). In addition to these, other factors influences the attractiveness of the market relative to the potential oil industry. Provided hereunder is the convertibility of currency which is another deeming factor that can influence investment opportunities in Brazil or Russia. Convertibility of Local Currency to Dollars The convertibility of a countrys local currency also plays an important role in further development of an economy. With the U.S dollar being the world reserve currency, developing countries would do well to have a close, if not full convertibility rate to the U.S dollar. In Brazil the currency used is the Brazilian Real (R$), also known as BRL. At present the exchange rate for Brazilian currency to the U.S dollar is 1.82 BRL to $1 U.S.D. Though not fully convertible, the Brazilian Real stands strong. Ever since 2003, the U.S dollar has fallen 50% against the BRL. The reason for the strength in the Brazilian Real is the fact that Brazils exports surpass its imports. Thus more foreign currency comes in, than the BRL goes out. This can affect the Brazilian currency positively as a convertible currency would mean free movement of capital, which can help strengthen the economy. Oil is in great demand all over, for it has a vast number of uses. If the oil industry were to come to Brazil it will yield much higher profits due to its close conversion rate to the US dollar of 1.82 BRL to $1 U.S.D as mentioned earlier. As of 2009, Brazil had the second largest oil reserves in the region of South America, of 12.6 billion barrels as was proven by The Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ). 2.4 billion barrels of oil was produced in Brazil each day and continued to rise throughout the years. With increases such as these, the Short-Term Energy Outlook forecasted as of September 2009, that oil production would reach around 2.61 million and 2.81 million in 2010. Brazil, in this respect clearly has high potential where the oil industry is concerned and would prove to be a profitable area for investors wishing to position their industry in the country. However, investors must still be cautious. Although Brazil is high on foreign exchange, in order to sustain this level of foreign currency coming into the country, and to deter inflation of their currency, trade barriers and the high tariffs ar e place on some goods to prevent or minimize imports. Taxes are also very high and are placed on all citizens in the country to cover government spending. So at the end of the day a heavy amount of a businesss profits would go towards paying taxes. So while an oil industry may work well in Brazil, there are other areas of concern that investors must take into consideration before selecting the country as a target market. Russia on the other hand has achieved full convertibility of its currency since the year 2006. Russias currency uses the ruble or RUB. At present, its rate to the US is 1 RUB to 0.03 US dollars. This therefore opens Russias economy to freer movement of trade and a major player in international financial markets (Encyclopedia.com, 2006). A fully convertible currency has gained Russia multiple benefits such as the opening of ruble accounts for both foreign and local investors alike and the advantage of investing in both foreign and domestic businesses. Russia is quickly becoming a globally established economy. However, there remain few problems with the Russian currency. According to The Worlds Favourite Currency Site, Russians inflation rate, compared to the US Dollar, is near 6.5 percent, while the ruble has weakened to 33 rubles per US dollar. Russia, as the largest oil producer on the globe, can suffer greatly from fluctuations. This is because as prices rise and fall, so must the prices of oil change to reflect. This, as a result, hinders the ability for the country to plan a proper budget for its economy and consequently, the ability to plan for expansionary purposes for the economy as a whole. Comparing and contrast trade agreements International relationship specific to the WTO and OPEC as it relates to the Brazil and Russia As the result of globalization, international relations between countries have become increasingly significant, hence the reason why, the rules regarding international trade became necessary. On average 52.3% of Russias total trade turnover takes place with the European Union which is also the biggest investor in Russia accounting for 75% of Russias foreign direct investment. Notwithstanding this, Russia is the worlds largest economy which is not part of the WTO and with Russia being the second largest producer of oil in the world, it is not part of OPEC. Russias non-membership in these critical organizations limits its ability to play an active role in the decision making process as an emerging market. In the case of the WTO, despite recommendation for accession into the WTO by the EU and other members of the BRIC forum, Russia has failed to implement some of the necessary regulatory requirements as the leadership of the country has shown the lack of political will to do so. There h ave been years of rescheduling, timetabling and back and forth negations to ensure that Russia becomes a member of the WTO, however in June 2009 Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin made an appalling decision to abandon efforts for accession into the WTO. In retrospect, the development of Russia by exploiting opportunities made available through the WTO and its multilateral trade agreements is hindered. Similarly, Russias non-participation in OPEC has had far-reaching ramifications for the oil industry since it is not able to play a role in controlling the supply and price of oil. On the other hand, Brazil is a member of several international economic organizations as such as the WTO and WCO. The WTO is a global international organization which deals with trade between nations. Brazils membership into the WTO represents the fact that the regulatory requirements of the WTO have been met by Brazil which allows for the exploitation of balance of rights and obligations and ensures that there is security and fairness as it relates to multilateral trade. Traditionally Brazil has produced just about enough oil to aid in its local consumption. However in 2008 with the discovery of off show oil deposits which may contain as much as 100 billion barrels of oil Brazil may become one of the worlds emerging oil exporters. In this regard Brazilian authorities have expressed the desire to become members of OPEC whenever it commences oil exports. This motive will stands to provide mutual benefits for both Brazil and the OPEC since the addition of Brazil as a member of OPEC will allow for the organization to have control over a larger percentage of the worlds oil hence more influence on oil supply and by extension prices. Similarly, Brazil will now have influence over world oil prices as a member of OPEC. This gives Brazil a comparative advantage over Russia relative to the oil industry in that although Russia have been a major exporter of oil, it has not established relations hips with other oil exporting countries to facilitate the regulation of oil supply, prices and corruption in the industry. Further, while Russia is suffering from quickly depleting oil supply Brazil has been able to locate new oil reserves resulting in more clout for Brazil on the international scene as it relates to trade as a decision maker in the oil industry. Market size and attractiveness Both Russia and Brazil are part of the four emerging markets (BRIC) with great potential for economic growth. Brazil has a population of 192,272,890, ranked number four in terms of population size on the market potential index for emerging markets in 2009. Brazilians has a mean disposable income of USD 16,208 with an emerging middle class. The level of economic growth has left some inequalities and therefore 75% of the population earns below the mean disposable income. The rapid growth of the middle class in Brazil has resulted in higher demands for oil and oil related products impacting positively on the industry. Growth of the upper/elite class is also evident with a 124% increase in average disposable income from 2002-2007 of USD 72,932. These levels of growth have been complemented by increased government spending and a falling debt to GDP ratio. The decreasing amount of public and foreign debt stands to benefit the economy in terms of employment since government can spend more o f its resources the capital side of the budget equation and in some cases less taxes are necessary to service recurrent expenditure and debt hence more disposable income is available to circulate in the economy. These economic conditions amongst many others are responsible for the position Brazil has established in the global market as one of the worlds fastest emerging and most attractive markets. Russias population stands at 141,927,297 as of 1 January 2010 with steady growth of the upper/elite class driving oil consumption to an all time high. The changing lifestyle of persons in the upper class fueled by high-end motor vehicles has resulted is a ravenous demand for oil and oil based products. Russias low debt to GDP ratio of 6.8% should allow for efficient distribution of wealth and steady economic growth. However because of the level of corruption there is inefficient distribution of wealth and the overdependence on the oil industry hinders the countrys ability to compete in ot her areas. Russia also has the highest disposable income of emerging markets with 87% of per capita income being disposable, with projected increase of disposable averaged at 15% annually. There is a widening middleclass especially in Moscow which has a disposable income that is more than three times that of the national average. The average disposable income is $ 1023. This comparison clearly shows why both countries are regarded as emerging markets and are generally attractive to investors. This will yield much benefit to the oil industry because of the increasing demand tied with improvements in the standard of living and disposable income. Russia however is confronted with the problem of depleting oil supply, hence, if demand continues to rise Russia oil imports will peak resulting in a steep fall in GDP. It should also be noted that the spread of wealth in Brazil is more equitable than that of Russia which creates a gap in class strata which is known to cause increases in indig ent rates which leads to civil unrest in some cases. Conclusions The oil Industry is clearly very dynamic and is affected by several variables in the economy including: the type of government, economic freedom, regulatory systems, currency fluctuation and convertibility, general economic condition , trade and international relations, market size and attractiveness and many other related factors. With Russia and Brazil being members of the BRIC forum of emerging markets and the concurrent peaks in demand for oil, efficient and prudent economic management should ensure the equitable spread of wealth which should stimulate economic growth. However limitations of governments and other related variables are impediments to the achievement of these noble dreams. Hence, based on the evaluation of critical areas in this paper it is conclusive that both Brazil and Russia presents opportunities for investment and in specific areas one may have a comparable advantage over the other. Clearly in generalization Brazil offers a more stable and predictable investm ent environment which hinges on its steady system of government with established trade relations and a regime prone to fighting corruption as opposed to Russia which have been marred by corruption at all levels and mismanagement in its oil industry. The emergence of future oil exporting potential by Brazil will further position Brazil to be one of the worlds economic powers. While Russia have had some level of growth, much of it is not attributed to the efforts of it government system but rather to economic factors as a result of changing spending patterns. Our recommendation of Brazil as the choice investment market is relative to outlook from the perspective of the oil industry and may vary for other industries. It is arguable that based on the industry being examined and the economic variables under consideration that Russia may be found suitable for investment.

Piagets Cognitive Theory Children And Young People Essay

Piagets Cognitive Theory Children And Young People Essay b. The basic concept of Piagets theory of cognitive development. As we know, the famous theory of cognitive development was found by Jean Piaget. He was born in 1896 (Newkirk, 2009). Newkirk also mentioned that Piaget was a theorists and also a biologist. Besides,the author reported that Piaget did observing his own children and attracted to changes that occured and developed in childrens mind and the factors behind these changes. In addition, Gartrell (2011) also stated that Piagets method by questioning the children is called as clinical method. Children started to develop their understanding through their surrounding based on four stages of cognitive development. As mentioned by Gartrell the stages are the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and lastly formal operations stage. The first stage is sensorimotor stage which starts when the babies were born until age of 2 years old while second stage starts around the age of 2 to 7 years (Santrock, 2011). The author also claimed about the other stages, that are the third stage, concrete operational stage which lasts from 7 until 11 or 12 years old and lastly moving to the fourth stage is formal operations stage. Compared to the other three stages earlier which involving babies and children, this last stage is involving with the adolescence and adulthood. This is the highest stage in cognitive development because this is where a person can make such reasoning and hypothesis (Santrock, 2011) for example, not only concrete events but also towards abstract events such as feelings or inferencing scientific experiments. Furthermore, Santrock (2011) proposed that there are two basic tendencies that will go together with these four stages, which are organization and adaption. Ormrod (2011) stated that organization is possibility of a person to handle their process of thinking. It is also called as schemes which means the building block of intelligent behavior. Next, adaption is the process of an individual to adapt to the environment (Ormrod, 2011). In the same way, Ormrod stated that there are two basic processes in adaption which are assimilation and accommodation. According to Krause, Bochner and Duchesne, cognition is the mental processes involved in perceiving, attending to, understanding and recalling information (2007, p43). Piagets theory of cognitive is underline into the consciousness of mind and thinking. As children are developing, their way of thinking started to change from time to time accordingly to the four stages. Piaget was not really interested into the knowledge having by the children but he was more fascinated by the way of children think, observe their surrounding and how they express it into speeches (Krause et al., 2007). The authors too found that Piaget and his theory are important because he is the first theorists that came out with such theory about development of children from the aspect of cognitive and his idea is still be using untill now even though it has been years. c. Discuss how the Piagets theory apply to child development. Self development is very important in childrens life because it develop in them while they are growing up. In Piagets theory of cognitive development, he focused of four stages of children development that are, sensorimotor stage as the first, secondly is preoperational stage, next concrete operational stage and last but not least formal operations stage. As explained earlier, sensorimotor stage is occured from the birth untill the age of 2 years. According to Krause et al.,(2007), infants in this stage will begin to develope their reflexes by doing some motor activities and senses. They are trying to understand the world around them. For example, infants will show happy expression or laughing when we are teasing and cuddling with them, this shows that infants started to make sense things around them but with limited abilities because it is only based on what they get through their senses. In sensorimotor, there are sub-stages that divided into 6 categories, that are reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of reactions, tertiary circular reactions and early representional thought (Brenda, 2010). The first sub-stage is reflexes, according to Brenda (2010) this sub-stage is occured from the birth of the infants until 1 month old. During this stage, infants understand their surrounding by using si mple reflexes for example they will starting to smile. Next, primary circular reactions sub-stage is when the infants are 1 to 4 months. Variety of actions will be perform. For instance, infants are sucking his or her thumb, and as a result they will repeat the same actions because it pleasure them. As it goes on, third sub-stage is secondary circular reactions which occured during 4 to 8 months. Brenda (2010) mentioned in this sub-stage, the infants will be doing the same actions but it extends out to the environment such as replacing sucking their thumbs with rubber toys. In other words the infants are having improvement in their reactions. Moreover, in fourth sub-stage which is coordination of reactions from the age of 8 to 12 months. They will begin to show clear actions and observe others behavior other than starting to develop ability in recognizing the things that had been shown to them. As example, instead of sucking thumb, infants will replace it with their toys. They may s queeze their rubber toys, when it goes mooo mooo, they will get excited and squeeze it again. Krause et al.,(2007) proposed that the infants also will understand that their toys are exist even though they cannot be seen or touch it or called it as object permanance. For example, a doll at first was played by infant, when we put and hide it under blanket the infant will be able to look for it. Infants who do not reach this sub-stage will not be able to look for it, but they will just not realize it. As the infants are growing up to become toddlers, the sub-stages also moving to the next, tertiary secular reactions where occured during toddler age 12 to 18 months. This is the time where toddlers will learn the concept of trial-error experiments with the purpose of getting attention (Brenda, 2010). Specifically, one of the activity might be doing by toddlers is hitting fork and spoon on the dining table, just to know what will happen, what sound will come out, and what are the reaction s they will get from others. Krause et al. called this process as goal-directed or intentional action (2007, p46). Last but not least sub-stage is early representional talk, from the toddlers at age of 18 until 24 months old (Krause et al., 2007). Based on the authors, this last sub-stage is where we can see the toddlers start to imitate others. During this stage, people around them need to be careful and only if possible showing them the good side especially their parents. This is because since parents are the closest people in toddlers life, they will observe what their parents are doing. For example, if the mothers usually sweeping the house at the morning, the toddlers will observe it and will do the same action of sweeping the house even though it is without the broom. As I experienced this too, during my visits to my aunties home, she has a 19 months old toddlers. I realized that her child keep following my way of reading magazines and drinking coffee from my mug. Even though the objects are not with the baby, but she followed my actions. In my opinion, parents need to get close with toddler to help their growth and try to play game with them such as peek-a-boo game because this will help the children to strenghten their object-permanance ability and moving to the next stages as Piaget had observed. The second stage that apply to child development is preoperational stage, which occured within the age of 2 to 7 years old. Newkirk (2009) proposed that children in this stage will develop from several aspects. They will be more capable in the usage of language skills for instance they can explain the objects by replacing it with pictures or words. But they still not be able to speak like adult, they can at least use one or two-words sentences to delivered messages. According to Newkirk, imagination level of children in this stage will usually increase and they are more curious to all things instead of being logical. Unlikely the first stage, in this second stage children will spend more of their time by putting role while they are playing. For instance, children always pretend a box is a house for them to shelter. Even myself experienced that during my childhood. I built my so-called home by using boxes and I create my own family members using my dolls to stay in that house, I even pretend cooked meals for my family. This prove that childrens imagination during this stage is very high but they still need supervision from parents in case they are exposed to unappropriate elements. Krause et al. (2007) noted that there are three main characteristics of preoperational stage which are egocentrism, centration and animism. The author define egocentric as the person who is unable to share another persons idea or view because the person considered that all view are the same with he or she. Piagets had done with the Three Mountain Tasks model experiments, and as the result the children expects that the person on other side of the model is seeing the same view as them (Krause et al., 2007). Next is centration, the authors described the meaning as the children focus on one feature of problems while ignoring other features. For example, children will not understand if we tell them Your sister is my daughter because their ability is limited. Moving on, the last characteris tic is animism. In this characteristic, the authors claimed that children belief that all things have lives. They considered inanimate objects have emotions and feelings like them. For example, a girl who age 3 years old always talk with her teddy bear as the teddy bear is alive and answers her. Piagets third stage in child development is concrete operational stage which is from the age of 7 to 11 years (Santrock, 2011). During this stage, children are able to logically think about the concrete events and starting to eliminate their egocentrism which means they started to learn to view others perspective too. Even though they are getting capable in the usage of logic but they still having the difficulty in understanding the hypothetical concepts (Krause et al., 2007). The authors also claimed that there are several processes in this stage that involve in child development, that are reversibility where the children have the ability to think about the reverse event such as in mathematical solving problems where they need to add and subtract and add it back, secondly is seriation which menas the ability to mentally put things in order according to its features for example size, weight, and height. Next is compensation, where the children have the ability see that something is i ncrease because of something is decrease such as the height is increasing because of the width s decreasing and vice versa. Besides, the fourth is classficiation which means the ability that children have to name and identify the sets or group of the objects by its features such as size, colours and appearance. Class inclusion is the fifth processes mentioned by the authors which bring the meaning of ability to understand that a small amount of groups can be combine to form a large group as Krause et al. called it as multiple classification (2007, p53). For example a car can be include into its brand name such as Proton or under large group of vehicles. Last but not least the processes found by Krause et al. (2007) is conservation, whereby children at last know that quantities, or lenghts are not related at all to the arrangement or appearance of the things. For example, a child is presented with two same sized of bowls filled with flour, but when one of the full bowl flour is pour into jar with different sized he and she or he will still know that the quantity of the flour is the same either it is in bowl or jar. Lastly, the fourth stages in Piagetian is formal operations which occur to 11 years old children and beyond (Santrock, 2011). As we can see, this is the highest level of child development in Piagets theory as it goes until our adulthood. Santrock stated that in this stages people continue to develop ability of thinking with presence of abstract concept. Logically, children begin to take notes about the possibility of the consequences of every events they experienced and also started to think in a formal way. Besides, Krause et al. (2007) suggested that children in this stage are already know how to use deductive and inductive reasoning. As the author define deductive reasoning as the potentiality of children to use a general principle to determine a specific outcome, on the other hand inductive reasoning is using and observing specific outcome to include general principles. In this final stage also children will develop their problem solving activities. When entering adoloscence, the y are able to do systematic planning in their life and also make a hypothesis, inference far better than stages before (Brenda, 2010). Overall, that are the four stages that involve in child development until adolescence. d. Discuss how the Piagets theory apply children in preschool and early primary levels. Preschool children are basically who are still develop their cognitive abilities in stage two, preoperational. As stated by Krause et al. (2007) regarding applying Piagets theory into preschoolchildren who are still in stage two, there will be at least two parties that involved in helping to apply this cognitive theory to children firstly parents, secondly educators or teachers.Moreover, by introduce to children this concept means we are letting them to be independent and explore their world by themselves. Preschool children who are basically age between 4 to 6 years are in preoperaional stage. As I explained in previous sub-questions, children in this stage has become more capable in obtaining language skills and using it to represent objects but still limited because they cannot reached the events where explanation need to relate with concrete logic. Firstly as parents, they must give freedom to their children especially preschool children to play with their friends since children in this stage will spent more of their time with playing (Krause et al., 2007). Nowadays, majority of parents always having misconceptions, they think that they cannot let their children play too much, in fact they should not too strict in controlling their children. What parents should do is by letting their children play with their friends but make sure to supervision who are their friends. Logically, according to Krause et al., by giving children chance to play, they will explored their world while inter acting with friends (2007). Create a safe-mode place for them to play so that they feels your attention towards them, during this process children will encounter some problems. This is the right time to let them be independence by solving their problems but with supervision. Even though at first they might not really capable in solving it but it will be better as they go through this process and get knowledge from what we called as hands-on experiences (Krause et al., 2007). Besides, Ormrod suggested that parents should always communicate with their children especially who are in this stage. This is because children may feel left out if their parents are too busy and even do not have time to spend with them. In other way, this also a good opportunities to increas the level of self-esteem of the children. On the other hand, teachers also play an important role in applying preoperational stage towards preschool children. Newkirk found out that since children during this stage will usually be in egocentrism state, they do not realize about other perspectives (2009). So, as a teacher need to know how to handle this situation for example letting the children having conversation with the peers in class will enhance their understanding of others world or teachers can create a questions and answers session with the preschool students. The purpose of doing that is because to increase the self esteem of children and to let them hear others views too so that their level of egocentrism can be decrease. As an educators,creactivity is needed to attract preschool children in learning such as by using visual aids to stimulate the childrens mind (Newkirk, 2009). Examples of visual aids are like bringing props such as the real fruits if teachers want to teach about type of fruits in class. After finis hed teaching, teachers can serve the students with the fruits, and let them have the hands-on experience. The author also did mentioned that in order to develop preoperational stage between the children, use things that are different for examples cue cards written words and ask them to create sentences based on cards that they have or teachers can ask the preschool students to work in a group. In addition, interactions with peers will help the preschool children to improve their cognitive development or it is called as disequilibrium (Ormrod, 2011). Why talking with peers can help the children? This is because, logically the children and peers are at the same age level, so they can be more understanding between their group. How can we know if the children are applying preoperation stage in their cognitive development? Krause et al. (2007) described that the development at each cognitive stages is called as milestones. In this preoperational stage, Krause et al. also reported the childrens milestones development is from the aspect of thinking and language skill whereby they know to replace objects with drawing, words or gestures. As for instance, when children are at shopping mall, they are able to tell their parents by pointing to the things that attract them such as toys and dolls. Besides children also learnt to produce sound for example while they are playing with their soldier toys, they can make sound like dush dush to indicate the soldier toys they are playing with are fighting. In contrast, children who do not develop well in this stage will no be able to differentiate between the living things and inanimate objects. For example, they are treating the real cats and cat doll the same as both have feelings, emotions and know how to feel hungry whereas only the living things can feel all that. In a nutshell, children will reached each stages when the readiness come and they still need to be taught to guide to the right path. Krause et al. (2007) did proposed that teachers and parents should not teach their children the highest level of stages if it is not the right time by means the children are just not ready yet. e. Summary. In conclusion, I agreed with propose suggested by Ormrod (2011), Piagets theory have its own benefits and disadvantegous. As Piagets idea was the first to talk about cognitive development among children, his idea is the famous one and still be used even until today. In my opinion, Piagets theory had changed peoples view about children development. Even though as reported by Newkirk (2009), children development are not always moving from each stage according to the age that Piagets planned, but they still will moving according to the stage either it is fast or late. Last but not least, implementation of cognitive theory in children development is very effective as it will be very helpful towards the children themselves as this theory help to influence children in the aspects of biological maturation, activities, social experiences and equilibration.

Fried Green Tomatoes at Whistle Stop Cafe: Novel vs. Movie Essays

Fried Green Tomatoes at Whistle Stop Cafe: Novel vs. Movie â€Å"I may be sitting at the Rose Terrace Nursing Home, but in my mind I’m over at the Whistle Stop Cafe having a plate of Fried Green Tomatoes† (Flagg ). Both the novel and the movie received a number of great reviews and honors. However, the two vary greatly in content. The novel, Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe, brings the reader a much more detailed and very different story compared to the movie. For example, the character Vesta Adcock as portrayed in the novel is a citizen of Whistle Stop. Flagg sees Vesta as having church meetings and socials at her home and also as being the president of the drama club. â€Å"... Mrs. Vesta Acock, this little bird-breasted woman... who’s from Whistle Stop, came in wearing her fox furs and her diamond dinner rings† (Flagg 27). However, in the movie, Mrs. Adcock’s character changes completely. She does not play a woman from Whistle Stop, but Ed Couch’s aunt. The film shows her as a grouchy old woman residing in the Rose Hills Nursing Home Also, in the novel Flagg describes Buddy Threadgoode’s lover as Eva, the town harlot and proprietor of â€Å"The Wagon Wheel River and Fishing Club†. â€Å"...she had slept with a lot of men..., but [Buddy] didn’t care. Eva was as easy with her body as she was with every thing else.... The first time she took [Buddy] to bed, she made him feel like a man† (Flagg 94). Although the movie shows Buddy in love with the most admired woman in Whistle Stop, Ruth Jamison, the film shows Buddy walking with Ruth by the river. His eyes light up when he sees her and he cares about her greatly. In fact, he was trying to retrieve Ruth’s hat when the train killed him. Ninny Threadgoode says in the movie, â€Å"...his heart belonged to Ruth Jamison.† In addition, in the novel, Evelyn, who feels her life has become an endless battlefield, mainly because of her severe self-conscienceness, invented a person she used to give her courage in times she felt belittled. When someone would make her feel worthless Evelyn would think about Towanda and all the super hero battles she would fight if she really were Towanda. â€Å"Evelyn had even made up a secret code name for herself... a name feared around the world: TOWANDA THE AVENGER!† (Flagg 238). On the other hand in the movie, the unrefined and untamed Idgie Threadgoode thinks up Towanda. Evelyn uses... ...st scattered to the wind.† She does not find her house, although her new friend comforts her. In the movie, Ninny says,â€Å" Hey Evelyn, somebody stole my house. It was right here when I left.† Evelyn, who has fallen in love with Ninny, takes Ninny to her house and makes a home for her there. However, in the novel, Ninny Threadgoode goes back to her home in Whistle Stop, a growing city. There has been a lot of changes in the town, and all of Ninny’s memories have become rundown issuers. Despite the changes she returns to her house. Shortly after she returns, she dies a peaceful death in her sleep. â€Å"She wasn’t sick...she died in her sleep† (Flagg 378). Indeed, the movie and the novel hold many differences. Characters have changed, been eliminated, events have been left out, and relationships differed. Despite the changes, the film still managed to live up to the standards the book set. â€Å"Fried Green Tomatoes is a thorouly enjoyable move...,† says James Berardinelli quoted from the internet. Nominated for a Pulitzer Prize in 1987, this novel has tons of material which changed in the screenplay. However, both works offer dynamic characters, an interesting plot, and charming dialogue.

Symbols and Symbolism - A Comparison of Nicknames in A Dolls House and Major Barbara :: comparison compare contrast essays

Symbolism of Nicknames in A Doll's House and Major Barbara    The use of nicknames in literature is an important tool in which the author can provide insight into the attitudes of the characters toward each other and to provide illumination as to the nature of specific characters. Two such pieces of literature in which these attitudes and illumination can be evidenced are A Doll's House by Henrik Ibsen and Major Barbara by Bernard Shaw. The attitudes of the characters in A Doll's House, more specifically Torvald Helmer and the maid Anne-Marie, toward Nora can be evidenced with the names by which she is referred. In Major Barbara, the names by which the characters call each other not only show their personal attitudes toward each other, but also provide classical reference by which we can better understand the characters.    In A Doll's House, Torvald Helmer's attitude toward his wife Nora can be seen in the ways in which he refers to her. In line 11 of the first act, we come across the first instance of Torvald's bird references to Nora with "Is that my little lark twittering out there?" This reference is the first of many in which Torvald refers to Nora as a lark. Often this referencing is preceded by diminutive terms such as "little" and "sweet, little." Torvald also refers to Nora as a squirrel, a spendthrift, a songbird, and a goose, these terms also preceded with a diminutive. The significance of this nicknaming is to show Torvald's attitude toward Nora. Torvald sees Nora as small, sweet, unobtrusive and therefore easily controlled. This position is one he would like Nora to continue to occupy. In line 257, Torvald refers to Nora as "my richest treasure" denoting his attitude toward her as his possession.    Nora's nurse, and the nurse of her children as well, Anne-Marie, shows her attitude of Nora as well. In the beginning of the second act, we find Nora in a conversation with Anne-Marie in which Anne-Marie refers to Nora as "Miss Nora," "little Nora," and "poor little Nora." It seems to everyone that Nora not only acts as a child, but is seen as one as well. It is here we realize it is not only the man being overbearing and keeping the woman in what he sees as her rightful position, but the maid also contributes to the indoctrination.

Drama Films

Drama Films are serious presentations or stories with settings or life situations that portray realistic characters in conflict with either themselves, others, or forces of nature. A dramatic film shows us human beings at their best, their worst, and everything in-between. Each of the types of subject-matter themes have various kinds of dramatic plots. Dramatic films are probably the largest film genre because they include a broad spectrum of films. See also crime films, melodramas, epics (historical dramas), biopics (biographical), or romantic genres – just some of the other genres that have developed from the dramatic genre. Dramatic themes often include current issues, societal ills, and problems, concerns or injustices, such as racial prejudice, religious intolerance (such as anti-Semitism), drug addiction, poverty, political unrest, the corruption of power, alcoholism, class divisions, sexual inequality, mental illness, corrupt societal institutions, violence toward women or other explosive issues of the times. These films have successfully drawn attention to the issues by taking advantage of the topical interest of the subject. Although dramatic films have often dealt frankly and realistically with social problems, the tendency has been for Hollywood, especially during earlier times of censorship, to exonerate society and institutions and to blame problems on an individual, who more often than not, would be punished for his/her transgressions. Social Problem Dramas: Social dramas or â€Å"message films† expressed powerful lessons, such as the harsh conditions of Southern prison systems in Hell's Highway (1932) and I Am a Fugitive From a Chain Gang (1932), the plight of wandering groups of young boys on freight cars during the Depression in William Wellman's Wild Boys of the Road (1933), or the lawlessness of mob rule in Fritz Lang's Fury (1936), or the resourcefulness of lifer prisoner and bird expert Robert Stroud (Burt Lancaster) in John Frankenheimer's Birdman of Alcatraz (1961), or the tale of a framed, unjustly imprisoned journalist (James Cagney) in Each Dawn I Die (1939). In Yield to the Night (1956), Diana Dors relived her life and crime as she awaited her execution. A tough, uncompromising look at New York waterfront corruption was found in the classic American film, director Elia Kazan's On the Waterfront (1954) with Marlon Brando as a longshoreman who testified to the Waterfront Crimes Commission. The film rew criticism with the accusation that it appeared to justify Kazan's informant role before the HUAC. Problems of the poor and dispossessed have often been the themes of the great films, including The Good Earth (1937) with Chinese peasants facing famine, storms, and locusts, and John Ford's The Grapes of Wrath (1940) about an indomitable, Depression-Era Okie family – the Joads – who survived a tragic journey from Oklahoma to California. Martin Scorsese's disturbing and violent Taxi Driver (1976) told of the despairing life of a lone New York taxi cab driver amidst nighttime urban sprawl. Issues and conflicts within a suburban family were showcased in director Sam Mendes' Best Picture-winning American Beauty (1999), as were problems with addiction in Steven Soderbergh's Traffic (2000). Films About Mental Illness: Two films from different eras that dealt with the problems of the mentally ill and conditions in mental institutions were Anatole Litvak's The Snake Pit (1948) with tormented Olivia de Havilland's assistance from a psychiatrist, and Milos Forman's adaptation of Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) with Jack Nicholson as a rebellious institutional patient who feigned insanity but ultimately was squashed by Nurse Ratched and the repressive system. Bette Davis played a neurotic and domineering woman in John Huston's In This Our Life (1942). Sam Wood's Kings Row (1942) examined the various fears and phobias in a small-town. Repressed and prohibited from consummating her love with Warren Beatty, Natalie Wood exhibited signs of insanity in Elia Kazan's Splendor in the Grass (1961). Another teenager (Kathleen Quinlan) felt suicidal tendencies due to schizophrenia in I Never Promised You a Rose Garden (1977). And 1930s-40s actress Frances Farmer (Jessica Lange) tragically declined due to a mental breakdown and subsequent lobotomy in Frances (1982). The repressed emotions and tragic crises in a seemingly perfect family were documented in Robert Redford's directorial debut Best Picture and Best Director-winning Ordinary People (1980). Films About Alcoholism: A hard look was taken at alcoholism with Ray Milland as a depressed writer in Billy Wilder's The Lost Weekend (1945) and Jack Lemmon (and Lee Remick) in Blake Edwards' Days of Wine and Roses (1962). An aging alcoholic singer (Bing Crosby) desperate for a comeback was the theme of The Country Girl (1954) – the film that provided Grace Kelly with a Best Actress Oscar. Susan Hayward acted the decline into alcoholism of 1930s star Lillian Roth in Daniel Mann's biopic I'll Cry Tomorrow (1955). More recently, Mickey Rourke and Faye Dunaway played the parts of two fellow alcoholics in Barbet Schroeder's Barfly (1987). Films about Disaffected Youth and Generational Conflict: Juvenile delinquency, young punks and gangs, and youth rebellion were the subject matter of Dead End (1937), Laslo Benedek's The Wild One (1953) with biker Marlon Brando disrupting a small town, Richard Brooks' The Blackboard Jungle (1955) with Glenn Ford as an idealistic teacher in a slum area school, and Nicholas Ray's Rebel Without a Cause (1955) with James Dean as an iconic disaffected youth. Race Relations and Civil Rights Dramas: Films that were concerned with race relations included Hollywood's first major indictment of racism in producer Stanley Kramer's and director Mark Robson's Home of the Brave (1949), the story of a black WWII soldier facing bigoted insults from his squad. Then, there was John Sturges' Bad Day At Black Rock (1955) about small-town Japanese-American prejudice uncovered by a one-armed Spencer Tracy, Stanley Kramer's The Defiant Ones (1958) with Tony Curtis and Sidney Poitier as bound-together escaping convicts – and Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967) about an inter-racial couple (Sidney Poitier as WHO doctor John Prentiss and Katharine Houghton as SF socialite Joanna Drayton) planning on marrying who needed parental approval from Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy (in their ninth and last film together). Also, In the Heat of the Night (1967) featured a bigoted sheriff and a black homicide detective working together to solve a murder, and Spike Lee's Do the Right Thing (1989) – about racial tensions and eventual violence during a hot Brooklyn summer. Strong indictments toward anti-Semitism were made in Elia Kazan's Gentleman's Agreement (1947) with writer Gregory Peck posing as a Jew, and Crossfire (1947) about the mysterious murder of a Jew. The Japanese film classic from Akira Kurosawa titled Rashomon (1951) examined a violent ambush, murder and rape in 12th century Japan from four different perspectives. Courtroom Dramas: See also AFI's 10 Top 10 – The Top 10 Courtroom Drama Films Courtroom legal dramas, which include dramatic tension in the courtroom setting, maneuverings between trial opponents (lawyers, prosecutors, and clients), surprise witnesses, and the psychological breakdown of key participants, were exemplified in films such as the following: * William Dieterle's film noir The Accused (1948), with Robert Cummings defending college professor Loretta Young's self-defense murder * 12 Angry Men (1957) with Henry Fonda and eleven other jurists in a tense deliberation room * Billy Wilder's intriguing and plot-twisting Witness for the Prosecution (1957) based on an Agatha Christie play * Otto Preminger's Anatomy of a Murder (1959) with James Stewart as a defense lawyer for accused murderer Ben Gazzara * Compulsion (1959) the Navy court-martial trial based on the Herman Wouk play of the same name in The Caine Mutiny (1954) – a film with a memorable performance of Humphrey Bogart as Captain Queeg * the historic Scopes Trial battle in Inherit the Wind (1960) pitting Spencer Tracy against Fredric March in a case brought against a schoolteacher for teaching Darwinism * the social drama regarding the Nazi war crimes trials in Judgment at Nuremberg (1961) with Burt Lancaster as a Nazi judge defended by Nazi defense attorney Maximilian Schell in a 1948 court ruled by Chief Allied Judge Spencer Tracy * the defense case of a black accused of rape in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962), adapted from the Pulitzer-Prize winning novel by Harper Lee about civil rights In addition, director Robert Benton's Best Picture-winning Kramer vs. Kramer (1979) focused on the subject of a nurturing father (Dustin Hoffman) trying to win a child custody case with divorced Meryl Streep. An Australian film, Breaker Morant (1980) was another tense courtroom drama – the true story of soldiers in the Boer War who were used as scapegoats by the British Army. The award-winning drama, Sidney Lumet's The Verdict (1982) featured Paul Newman as an alcoholic, has-been Boston lawyer fighting a case of medical malpractice against James Mason. Glenn Close defended lover/client Jeff Bridges in Richard Marquand's who-dun-it Jagged Edge (1985). Assistant DA Kelly McGillis defended the bar-room gang-raped Jodie Foster (an Oscar-winning role) in The Accused (1988). A Soldier's Story (1984) examined racial hatred in a 1940s Southern military post in a dramatic courtroom murder/mystery. And A Few Good Men (1992) portrayed the courtroom conflict (known for its catchphrase: â€Å"You can't handle the truth! â€Å") between established Marine Colonel Jessup (Jack Nicholson) and two young Naval attorneys (Tom Cruise and Demi Moore) regarding the circumstances surrounding the hazing (â€Å"Code Red†) death (by asphyxiation due to acute lactic acidosis) of Private Santiago – a Marine stationed at Guantanamo Naval Air Station in Cuba. Jonathan Demme's AIDS drama, Philadelphia (1993) examined discrimination against AIDS and the legal defense of an AIDS sufferer (Tom Hanks) who was fired. Political Dramas: Political dramas include Frank Capra's two political tales – State of the Union (1948) with Tracy/Hepburn, and his classic story of a naive Senator's fight against political corruption in Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939). Conversely, the award-winning, potent story of a corrupt politician was dramatized in Robert Rossen's All the King's Men (1949) with Broderick Crawford as the rising politician. Alexander Knox starred as President Woodrow Wilson in Henry King's epic, big budget bio Wilson (1944). In Otto Preminger's Advise and Consent (1962), stars Charles Laughton (in his last film), Franchot Tone, and Lew Ayres portrayed scheming Senators during Henry Fonda's crisis-threatened Presidency. The controversial The Manchurian Candidate (1962) questioned the Cold War brainwashing of a Korean War hero. Michael Ritchie's The Candidate (1972) examined the harsh reality of the campaign trail with political hopeful Robert Redford starring as an attorney running for the Senate. Oliver Stone's conspiracy-centered drama, JFK (1991), attempted to disprove the theory that President Kennedy's killer acted alone. Journalism, the Press and Media-Related Dramas: Dramatic films often center around the theme of journalism, the world of reporters and news. Often regarded as the best film ever made, Orson Welles' Citizen Kane (1941) was an insightful character study of a newspaper magnate. Alan J. Pakula's All the President's Men (1976) was a docu-drama of real-life journalists Bernstein and Woodward investigating the Watergate scandal. Sidney Lumet's Network (1976) with Peter Finch as a despairing newsman was a critical look at TV news, while Sydney Pollack's Absence of Malice (1981) told about an over-earnest journalist (Sally Field) and a wrongly-implicated defendant (Paul Newman). James L. Brooks' Broadcast News (1987) focused on the world of network news shows, editors, and reporters. Elia Kazan's A Face in the Crowd (1957) showed how a down-home country boy (Andy Griffith in his film debut as Larry â€Å"Lonesome† Rhodes) could be transformed into a pop television show icon and political megalomaniac. Through the eyes of a cameraman, Haskell Wexler's docu-drama Medium Cool (1969) covered the corruption and events surrounding Chicago's 1968 Democratic Convention. In Peter Weir's The Year of Living Dangerously (1962), Mel Gibson played the role of an Australian journalist working during the time of President Sukarno's coup in mid-60s Indonesia. And in Oliver Stone's Salvador (1982), James Woods played the role of a photographer in war-torn El Salvador. WWII Homefront Dramas: Dramatic films which have portrayed the â€Å"homefront† during times of war, and the subsequent problems of peacetime adjustment include William Wyler's Mrs. Miniver (1942) about a separated middle-class family couple (Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon) during the Blitz, Clarence Brown's The Human Comedy (1943) with telegram delivery boy Mickey Rooney bringing news from the front to small-town GI families back home, John Cromwell's Since You Went Away (1944) with head of family Claudette Colbert during her husband's absence, and another William Wyler poignant classic The Best Years of Our Lives (1946) with couples awkwardly brought back together forever changed after the war: Dana Andrews and Virginia Mayo, Fredric March and Myrna Loy, and Harold Russell and Cathy O'Donnell. History-Related Dramas: Films that have dramatized portions of the American past include W. S.  Van Dyke's San Francisco (1936) on the eve of the 1906 quake, John Ford's Drums Along the Mohawk (1939) with Claudette Colbert and Henry Fonda facing marauding Indian attacks at the time of American independence, Howard Hawks' Sergeant York (1941) with Gary Cooper as the gentle hick-hero of the WWI trenches, the gothic drama of a turn of the century family in Orson Welles' The Magnificent Ambersons (1942), and of course Gone With The Wind (1939) during the Civil War and Reconstruction Eras. Exquisite, nostalgic family dramas include John Ford's How Green Was My Valley (1941) – a flashback of Roddy McDowall's childhood in a Welsh mining village, and George Stevens' tribute to a Norwegian immigrant mother (Irene Dunne) raising her family in San Francisco in I Remember Mama (1948). Sp orts Dramas: Dramatic sports films or biographies have created memorable portraits of all-American sports heroes, individual athletes, or teams who are faced with tough odds in a championship match, race or large-scale sporting event, soul-searching or physical/psychological injuries, or romantic sub-plot distractions. Fictional sports films normally present a single sport (the most common being baseball, football, basketball, and boxing), and include the training and rise (and/or fall) of the underdog or champion in the world of sports. Typical sports films (with biographical elements) include the sentimental biography of the Notre Dame football coach, Lloyd Bacon's Knute Rockne: All-American (1940). One of the best films ever made about pro-football was Ted Kotcheff's North Dallas Forty (1979) which examined the brutal fact of labor abuses and drug use in professional football – loosely basing its story on the championship Dallas Cowboys team. The tearjerking made-for-TV sports film Brian's Song (1970) used professional football as the backdrop for its sad tale of the death of a Chicago Bears running back (James Caan). Burt Reynolds starred in The Longest Yard (1974) as scandalized ex-professional football quarterback Paul Crewe in prison who must organize a team of convicts to challenge a prison-guard team (and then face the additional challenge of throwing the game). Recently, Cameron Crowe's sports romance-drama Jerry Maguire (1996), famous for the phrase â€Å"Show me the money! † starred Tom Cruise as a hard-driven major sports agent, and Academy Award-winning Cuba Gooding, Jr. as a football player. One of the best sports biopics was Sam Wood's The Pride of the Yankees (1942) with Gary Cooper in a fine performance as New York Yankees great Lou Gehrig. In The Jackie Robinson Story (1950), the famed black player who crossed the major-league ‘color-line' and joined the Brooklyn Dodgers portrayed himself. Director Barry Levinson's mythical and romanticized film about baseball titled The Natural (1984) featured Robert Redford as Roy Hobbes – a gifted baseball player who led his New York team to the World Series. Ron Shelton, who was an actual ex-minor leaguer, wrote and directed the intelligent comedy/drama Bull Durham (1988) which used as its backdrop minor league baseball to tell the story of a baseball groupie (Susan Sarandon), a veteran catcher (Kevin Costner) and a dim-witted pitcher named Nuke LaLoosh (Tim Robbins). The immensely popular fantasy/drama Field of Dreams (1989) concerned the creation of a ball diamond in the middle of an Iowa cornfield by a farmer (Kevin Costner). Writer/director John Sayles' Eight Men Out (1988) dramatized the infamous episode in professional baseball of the scandalous 1919 World Series that was fixed – with its final sepia-toned shots of banned ball-player â€Å"Shoeless† Joe Jackson (D. B. Sweeney) in the minors. And Tommy Lee Jones starred as the legendary baseball great Ty Cobb in Shelton's Cobb (1994). Basketball-related sports dramas are rare: three notable ones were Spike Lee's He Got Game (1998) with Denzel Washington as the convict father of a promising basketball athlete, David Anspaugh's Hoosiers (1986) about an underdog 50s basketball team (coached by Gene Hackman) that won the state championship, and Ron Shelton's play-filled, trash-talking court action film White Men Can't Jump (1992) with its two basketball hustlers/con-artists (Woody Harrelson and Wesley Snipes) and their scenes of two-on-two tournaments. Kevin Costner portrayed a talented pro golfer in Ron Shelton's romantic sports film Tin Cup (1996). And Paul Newman portrayed swaggering, upstart poolshark gambler Fast Eddie Felson in The Hustler (1961) in the world of professional pool, shooting against the great champ Minnesota Fats (Jackie Gleason). Downhill Racer (1969) starred Robert Redford as an American downhill skier training to become an Olympic superstar. The Best Picture winner Chariots of Fire (1981) told the parallel stories of two English runners (one a devout Protestant, the other Jewish) competing in the 1924 Paris Olympics. Autoracing in the Daytona 500 was featured in the action/drama Days of Thunder (1990). And one of the most memorable ice hockey films was Slap Shot (1977), with Paul Newman as inspiring player-coach Reg Dunlop of a minor-league team. Although a comedy, Caddyshack (1980) was about an elitist country club for golf, a mischievous green-destroying gopher, and a crazed groundskeeper (Bill Murray). Films about boxing are perhaps the most numerous sub-genre. One of the best boxing films ever made, along with Robert Wise's classic film noirish The Set-Up (1949) starring Robert Ryan as aging boxer Stoker Thompson, was the realistically stark Body and Soul (1947). It starred John Garfield as boxer Charlie Davis who ‘sold his soul' to unethical promoters but then had a change of heart in the last three rounds of a championship fight during which he was supposed to take a dive. Others included King Vidor's classic The Champ (1931), an award-winning story of a prizefighter and his young son, Champion (1949) with Kirk Douglas as the young fighter, the brutal boxing drama The Harder They Fall (1956) (Humphrey Bogart's underrated last film in which he portrayed Eddie Willis – an aging, crooked sportswriter), Ralph Nelson's Requiem for a Heavyweight (1962) with Anthony Quinn as punch-drunk, washed-up professional boxer Louis ‘Mountain' Rivera, Martin Ritt's The Great White Hope (1970) with James Earl Jones as black boxer Jack Jefferson, and Karyn Kusama's independent feminist film Girlfight (2000) with a great performance by Michelle Rodriguez as a struggling Brooklynite and teenage Latino boxer. One of the best films of the 80s decade, Raging Bull (1980) was Martin Scorsese's tough, visceral and uncompromising biopic film of the rise and fall of prizefighter Jake La Motta with a remarkable performance by actor Robert DeNiro. The stylized scenes in the ring included flying blood and sweat, exaggerated flashbulb camera flashes, slow-motion and violent punching sounds.

Staff Training And Development Essay

Sustaining Effective Staff Training And Development Essay IntroductionWhat is training and development?Training and development is a concept in management which allow the organisational activity to be aimed directly at performance of individuals, groups and the organization (Landale, 1999). There are three main activities under the guise of training and development which are interlinked – training, education and development. It is not just the role of the employer to identify training and development needs, the employee also needs to be able to identify their role in the organization and how they can effectively develop themselves (Landale, 1999). Van der Bossche et al (2010) acknowledge that due to the rapid advancements in technology and knowledge require the individual to participate in personal and professional development. The development of talent within the organization is necessary for competitive advantage to exist, it is also necessary for the retention of employees. The organization needs to identify talent and to support the individuals through all their training needsStaff Training and Development is described asthe necessity to cover the essential skills used in the everyday work situation. Within the promotion of training and development, the individual needs to be focused on the goal of developing their skills, knowledge and understanding of how the organization exists within its environment (Jerling, 1996). If the manager can motivate the employee in their work and can encourage development then the employee will see it in a positive light and will work towards the goals.I I Background Having effective employees is instrumental to the success of any business organization. This is the case because of the high employee turnover rates and high unemployment rates evident in most countries. Since the 2008 recession in the U.S, other countries of the world have experienced the ripple effects as the world largest economy struggles to recover. The European nations have suffered under the current debt crisis that has shrunk economies in Europe. Other countries in African and Asia have also felt the impact, as their economies are most dependent on both the U.S and European markets for trade. The subject of having effective employees has therefore, gained relevance as employers look for ways to sustain their workers. In an effort to keep their most important asset, organizations are heavily involved in the training and development of employees (Hung &Wong 2007). Training and development has been a tool used by organizations to mitigate the risks of losing employee to other or ganizations. It has also been used to groom future leaders of the company, as well as assist organizations in saving time and money. This essay shall discuss two theories that discuss employer support and training, as well as the impacts of employee performance in relation to training and development of employees.III Development Humphry Hung and Yiu Wong have come up with two theories that discuss the relationship between the employer and the workers when it comes to training, continuing education and work study performance (Hung and Wong, 2007). The theories were introduced because of a case study of Hong Kong students who were in school and worked at the same time. The authors then came up with the theories to help explain the student or employee’s performance in relations to their employees and employer relationship (Hung and Wong, 2007). The first theory was the psychological contract theory while the second one was the expectancy dis-confirmation theory. The researchers realized the need for employees to have an education so that they are able to move up the ladder as far as the work force is concerned. The researchers used the employee and employer relations as the subject of research, and came up with a model to explain how training and development can be effectively used in the workplace (Hung &Wong2007).Psychological contract theoryAccording to the psychological theory, the employer and the employee have a set of beliefs, promises and obligations that go beyond the formal contract between the two. This psychological contract theory is attributed to the second wave of research in this subject, namely where the basis is a mutual loyalty between employees and organization (Hall and Moss, 1998). The elements of the third wave of research on the psychological contract, which measures the attitudes and perpceptions of employees towards organization are demonstrated below (Robinson, 1996). In other words, once an employer hires an employee, the employee has to abide by certain rules while the employer is obligated to behave professionally. This means that the employees expect to exchange their loyalty and productivity for wages and other forms of compensation (Kimberly 2009). This theory may be regarded to be limited in delivery of depth of investigation of relations between organization and employees (Robinson and Morrisson, 1995). This suggests that recent research has failed to acknowledge the fact that psychological contact theory is more multi-dimensional as opposed to what has been presented in the research (Trunley and Feldamn, 1999a). As a result, there were two kinds of contents presented, namely transactional and relational. Transactional content involves measurable economic exchanges between the two parties. For instance, an employee works 40 hours a week for a paycheck at the end of the week. Relational contents are based on trust and long-term relationships. In such a case, an employee can delegate a certain role to the employee based on trust (McConnell 2004). In the study, three principles can emerged. First, there is interaction at an individual level, mutual relationship between the two parties and finally tactical exchanges. Most people believe that the relationship between the employee and the employer is based on personal ties because the employer is an embodiment of the organization, and the experience of their interaction dictates the success of an organization (Hung &Hing 2007). On the other hand, some believe that there has to be a mutual relationship between the employer and the employee for organizations to succeed. The mutual obligation is based on the belief that the employer is obliged to the employee in return for a commitment. Finally, the tactical exchanges occur between the workers in which case, the employee insists on a mental connection between the two parties (Kimberly 2009). The significance of the psychological contract theory is that it attempts to explain the employee’s behavior in regards to how he is treated by the employer. In other words, the employee relationship to the employer is imperative to matters regarding how employees react when subjected to training by organizations. The development of the employee dictates the performance of the employee in the continuing work-study. The research found that students who had a good working relationship with their employer performed well in their training and education compared to those who had a bad relationship (Hung &Hing 2007). Another limitation is attributed to the assumption, that psychological contact theory fails to address the specifics of individual work behaviour (Robinson, 1996a). From methodological perspective, this theory was developed on the basis of employee’s self-appraisals. As a result, it failed to include the actual supervisor’s appraisals, which are perceived to be quite crucial in delivery of objective opinion on the subject of job performance (Keeney and Svyantek, 2000).Expectancy disconfirmation theoryThe expectancy disconfirmation theory is similar to that of consumer dissonance. Only that in this case, it deals with the employee, as opposed to the consumer. The theory was brought about from the comparison of a worker and a consumer when dealing with their products. An employee is believed to have positively disconfirmed their role in the organisation when their perceived performance exceeds their expected performance (Roughton&Mercurio 2002). The opposite is true and r eferred to as negative disconfirmation. Negative disconfirmation occurs when an employee believes that their expectations exceed their perceived The ability for the organisation to be able to sustain effective staff training and development in the workplace is a necessity in the global market. The purpose of this paper is to reflect on training and development in the workplace (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). Other considerations which must be taken into consideration when discussing this topic are in relation to the culture and structure of the organisation as well as the importance of communication and the impact of the leadership styles on the overall behaviour of the organisation (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). The global market has allowed the transfer of skills and knowledge through migration and the internationalisation of organisations. Training and development are important to how the organisation can compete in the market, if the organisation can sustain their employees through training and development they will be able to compete in the market. The effectiveness of employees will prove to be a valuable asset to the organisation and it is important that the organisation holds on to their employees (Klein, 1998). It has been argued that the resources of an organisation are the key sources of competitiveness. There is a need to examine the background of the organisation – culture and structure to see how these can determine how the organisation perceives training and development opportunities within the organisation. This theory has also proved to have some limitations attributed to it. This implies that it has been a subject to limitations imposed on the methodlogical approach. This implies that there have been some concerns reported in relation to the measurement of expectations that have been met (Irving and Meyer, 1999). This implies that direct measurement which is utilized in prediction of the disrepency between the expectations in relation to the job and actual behavioural intentions (Irving and Meyer, 1999).Strategic ManagementStrategic management is an essential process which needs to be considered in any organisation. Thompson & Martin (2005) explain the process as being concerned with organisational actions and activities which identify and deal with threats, opportunities etc in both the internal and external environment. How strategic management is managed shows how well the organisation can adapt to change and how training and development will be welcomed in the organisational conte xt. Lamb (1984) states that strategic management assesses competitors of the organisation and sets goals and strategies which can be seen in the context of training and development and how the organisation views the importance of its employees. One of the most important strategic processes is the practice of retaining employees. It is best practice to keep the skills and knowledge available to the organisation to remain competitive and to be able to recruit the most talented individuals in the market. If an organisation has the pick of the talent through their recruitment process they can sustain their competitive advantage which will allow them to compete consistently. The type of culture is reflected through the recruitment and selection processes as well the organisational structure and culture. If an organisation can effectively train and develop their workforce as well as retain their employees. Performance management and a competitive incentive programme can enhance the ability of the organisation to select and recruit the individuals they want to recruit to positions and not just because they have to fill the position (Phillips & Pulliam Phillips (2002). Lambin (2000) defines the strategic process as allowing management to identify advantages and disadvantages. It will be important to identify the advantages and disadvantages of training and development further on in this paper but it is extremely necessary that these are identified so that the organisation can identify the skills and knowledge which they require in their organisation. The human element to the resources of the organisation are extremely important, Armstrong (2006) cites that the skills and competencies identified within the human resources process need to meet the future demands and challenges of the organisation and the environment. It will be necessary for the organisation to meet the pressures from the competitive environment and it should be prepared for this. Most organisations would not be able to function effectively in their environment without sustaining effective training and development in their workplaces. It is important that employees can be motivated i nto performing and target meeting.Organisational CultureThe culture of the organisation is an integral factor of organisational activity. Holbeche (2006) believes that there are issues linking corporate social responsibility, accountability and the stakeholder environment. The culture of the organisation will impact on the behaviour of the employees in reference to how they behave, their work attitudes, the ability to embrace change and how the organisational objectives are achievable or not. Motivational theory is extremely important (Alderfer, 1969, Vroom, 1964, Maslow, 1943, Herzberg, 1966) link the goals of the organisation to the performance and achievement of personal goals which in turn can be fuelled by how skilled and knowledgeable the individual is. The culture of the organisation can be linked to success through the achievement of the competitive advantage. Deal & Kennedy (1982) believe that the most important factor for the success or failure of the organisation is the c ulture. Culture by its very nature is implicit of behaviours within the organisation. Leadership and management are also essential to the understanding of culture and how it affects all mechanisms within the organisation (Rabey, 2003). This is also essential to the concept of training and development within the organisation as the development of management within the organisation, as the leadership role needs to grow both personally and professionally thus the impetus is on the development through training and development. The leader plays a role in the development of the organisation and if this individual is in tune with the development and training of the human resources, the organisation will embrace this concept. Schein (2004) reflects that the leadership and culture are inseparable. Structure is also important to the training and development environment within an organisation. The more rigid the hierarchical structure the less likely the culture will embrace training and development p ractices. While many organisations realise the need for progressive training and development it should be noted that not every organisation is a learning organisation (Schein, 2004).LeadershipIt is necessary to understand leadership as a concept before attempting to evaluate training and development. The development of the leader, according to Pedlar et al (2003), is that the concept is based on unexamined assumptions. There is no single definition of a leader, however, there are many attributes attached to leadership such as an ability to adapt, to make decisions, to be flexible and to be able to recognise skills within themselves and within others. The ability of the strategic manager is to be able to create an environment where employees want to participate and make a significant contribution to their role in the organisation. It is through this communicative process that the leader can identify the development requirements of the employee. The employee should be able to trust t he judgement of the leader to allow them to participate in any programmes for development and learning within the organisation (Rabey, 2003). It is also necessary that the leader can identify any developmental needs in their own career progression. If the leader is forward thinking they will bring the organisation into line with the requirement of the selection and recruitment process to enhance the competitive nature of the organisation. The performance of the individual is impacted by the authority figure in the organisational relationship and can be highly influenced by the use of incentives. One such incentive which can be used to motivate the employee is that of training and development opportunities. These types of incentives are extremely important in today’s global environment with the internationalisation of organisations and the free movement of the workforce. The more skilled the workforce, the more ability the employee has to dictate their position within the organisation. This position allows the employee to hold some power over the authority figure as they can determine where they want to go in terms of their career and their development. Communication is key to this process so that the employee knows what kind of training is available to them and for the leader to be able to communicate the type of training which may best suit the employee. It is important that the leader can apply self development to themselves before they apply it to the individuals within their organisation and there should be an ethos throughout the organisation on lifelong learning .Learning OrganisationIn today’s global environment the concept of lifelong learning is extremely important and it is necessary for all employees to keep their development and learning up to date. The availability of learning to employees should be a pre-requisite to any organisation who profess to be a global leader. It is necessary for all employees to keep their skills, resources and knowledge updated so that they can compete in their business market. The markets while very dynamic and complex are also extremely competitive, and organisations are always looking for the right individual to take up a position within the organisation, who will ultimately enhance their competitive advantage (Lambin, 2000). Lifelong learning as a concept is not new, however, the concept of learning within the organisational context is very new. This allows the individual to learn around their own experiences. Both the organisation and the individual should be in synch with each other to allow their goals to be achieved. The service which the individual can apply to their customer greatly leaves a mark on the organisation as to how proficient it is in dealing with its customer. The ability of the organisation to provide professional training for their employees will successfully promote the organisation as well as the role of the employee. It is necessary that lifelong learning should be promoted more readily in today’s global markets due to the expansion of business and the free movement of employees to other countries. Lifelong learning can be provided throughout the organisation and does not necessary mean that it must be formal, it can be on the job training, but it should be used to encourage and motivate the individual. It is important to understand that the concept of lifelong learning is not without it disadvantages and within many organisations the facility is very much available. However, it is up to the individual to decide that they wish to partake in any programme, and also up to the manager to put the employee forward for training and development. This is very much about communication. Depending on how free flowing communication is, depends on the availability of these facilities. If the employee does not push for these opportunities they can hardly be expected to be handed the opportunity. However, the manager must communicate that these opportunities are available to the employee and explain the positive features for the employee. It is also necessary that the vision and politics of the organisation match the service and opportunities which can be given to employees. The need to preserve the abilities of employees within the organisation has become increasingly important, especially for the organisation to retain the skills, knowledge and resources which it currently holds. Lifelong learning can in effect change the labour market and the direction which the organisation is heading. Smith (2001) identifies the need of an organisation to be progressive, to allow the individual to gain more knowledge throughout their career and to persuade the individual to use the resources available to them for educational and growth purposes.Benefits of Training and DevelopmentTraining and development is a particularly helpful feature to the organisation as well as the individual. The process allows both the organisation and the individual to grow alongside with the global market. It allows the individual within the organisati on to recognise that they should be motivated to perform their job to the best of their ability because they can feel more valued by the incentives which they can receive from the organisation. There are many benefits to the organisation and the employee but it should also be recognised that there are also disadvantages to this. Lifelong learning does not necessary mean that the employee has to go off site on participate in in-house training, it also means a variety of opportunities within the organisation such as job rotation, secondment etc. These types of roles allow the employee to try out the role but also it means that they can avail of training in other positions within the organisation. This type of training can also motivate the employee as it can be seen as a performance reward for their hard work. It would seem in today’s environment, the emphasis would be very much on a culture of performance equals rewards. Other types of training and development include attending classes and online courses.Advantages and disadvantages of Training and DevelopmentThe advantages which can be beneficial to the organisation is the retention of the current employees who are competent in their positions and have the ability to take on new roles within the organisation. If the employee can be trained in other po sitions it will benefit the organisation when it comes to employees leaving, thus the need for an urgent replacement for the position is no longer made a priority as the organisation can often promote or second from within. This allows the organisation some time to proceed with the recruitment and selection process to allow for them to find the right candidate. This also allows the employee to try other positions within the organisation and to decide if they wish to apply for these positions. With these types of training and development opportunities, the employee gets an opportunity to experience other roles and they may also provide a monetary incentive such as a pay rise while they are in the position. The ability of the organisation to provide these types of roles will also allow the organisation to retain their workforce and the skills and knowledge which come with that. It also enhances the skills of the employee. While there are advantages to training and development, there are also disadvantages. These disadvantages are predominately to the organisation but those which are important factors to the employee are the amount of time they would have to spend on the training and they may not be fully aware of the training opportunities which are afforded to them. This could be due to a lack of communication within the organisation or that the organisation is not overly interested in the development of their employees. One major reason that an organisation may not provide training and development would be down to cost in time and money. It may not be convenient for the organisation to spent time and money on an employee when the end result could be that they lose the skills and knowledge of the employee to another organisation due to the training and development they received. This has become more common as employees are more empowered and acknowledge the freedom to move to another job, even to mov e to another country.How Training and Development is ChangingGarrison & Anderson (2003: p.i) state that ‘The growth of e-learning is being described as explosive, unprecedented, and above all, disruptive.’ E-learning is associated with providing a framework for understanding the application and to goal set. This method of learning has become increasingly adopted as technology is evolving and transforming work practices. Many organisations have acknowledged the need to change according to reviewing the values and culture of their organisations. It has become increasingly important for organisations to adapt to the new learning environment. Training and development has changed rapidly due to global expansion. The employee no longer needs to take time off work to participate in training. Along with on the job training, it has become cost effective for employees to educate themselves through online and DVD/ CD’s. Technology has afforded organisations and employees easier ways to participate in training and development. Study can take place at the workstation or at home rather than the traditional format where the employee had to leave the workplace and travel to a destination where they could be facilitated. This has become extremely cost effective for the organisation as they are not losing man hours when the employee is studying/ on their course and it also means that workloads are not high because the work is still being completed. Along with the rise in popularity of the Internet and its main feature, namely interactivity, the human resource managers have found out that this may be used to the advantage for training and development purposes (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). The internet, as an interactive and communication medium provides wider access to the information and enables distance learning for knowledge transfer purposes. This suggests that it is much easier to engage in learning programs from any location in the world, if an individual has an Internet connection (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). Additionally, it has been estimated that the Internet is associated with lower costs, imposed on the training and development strategies. This implies that the main costs are reduced in the areas of physical distribution of training and development programs and the need for hiring a specific staff in order to maintain those. Online training allow the individual to manage the training program by himself, where he is r egarded to be in control over the situation (Venkatesh and Goyal, 2010). Van Dam, (2002) suggests that online training is utilized in combination with the offline channel, suggesting that in the majority of cases, the users of the online training system tend to maintain an offline contact whilst receiving the necessary instructions. The online training system is mainly utilized for the development of computer skills, job-related skills and technical competencies. Recently, there has been an emergence of economic recession that has affected the planning and implementation process of training and development programs. This implies that economic recession has made the companies to reconsider their costs and thereby plan the cuts, where necessary. CIPD, (in EWCO, 2009) has estimated that the performance of the majority of companies in the previous 12 months has been worsened. With regard to training and development, it has been estimated that 32 % of surveyed companies have reported cuts in the training and development budget in the previous 12 months. However, in the light of recession, despite the imposed cuts in budget, the majority of companies has estimated that training and development has not been viewed as an expendable commodity. This implies that the management of the companies still view training and development programs as the key priority for company’s achievement of organizational objectives (CIPD in EWCO, 2009; Bourke, 2009) . This suggests that there is a great potential for further investments in training and development programs, given its significance in the corporate world.Methods used in Training and DevelopmentThis type of training also encourages the employee as they can do all their study with the use of a pc and can do it during working hours at their workstation. It also allows the employee to have more say in their development and to enhance their skills. The use of IT has allowed the development of more globalised skills which are transferrable. 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